Structural and molecular basis of pollen germination.

Pollen germination is a prerequisite for double fertilization of flowering plants. A comprehensive understanding of the structural and molecular basis of pollen germination holds great potential for crop yield improvement. The pollen aperture serves as the foundation for most plant pollen germination and pollen aperture formation involves the establishment of cellular polarity, the formation of distinct membrane domains, and the precise deposition of extracellular substances. Successful pollen germination requires precise material exchange and signal transduction between the pollen grain and the stigma. Recent cytological and mutant analysis of pollen germination process in Arabidopsis and rice has expanded our understanding of this biological process. However, the overall changes in germination site structure and energy-related metabolites during pollen germination remain to be further explored. This review summarizes and compares the recent advances in the processes of pollen aperture formation, pollen adhesion, hydration, and germination between eudicot Arabidopsis and monocot rice, and provides insights into the structural basis and molecular mechanisms underlying pollen germination process.

ZmMS1/ZmLBD30-orchestrated transcriptional regulatory networks precisely control pollen exine development.

Because of its significance for plant male fertility and, hence, direct impact on crop yield, pollen exine development has inspired decades of scientific inquiry. However, the molecular mechanism underlying exine formation and thickness remains elusive. In this study, we identified that a previously unrecognized repressor, ZmMS1/ZmLBD30, controls proper pollen exine development in maize. Using an ms1 mutant with aberrantly thickened exine, we cloned a male-sterility gene, ZmMs1, which encodes a tapetum-specific lateral organ boundary domain transcription factor, ZmLBD30. We showed that ZmMs1/ZmLBD30 is initially turned on by a transcriptional activation cascade of ZmbHLH51-ZmMYB84-ZmMS7, and then it serves as a repressor to shut down this cascade via feedback repression to ensure timely tapetal degeneration and proper level of exine. This activation-feedback repression loop regulating male fertility is conserved in maize and sorghum, and similar regulatory mechanism may also exist in other flowering plants such as rice and Arabidopsis. Collectively, these findings reveal a novel regulatory mechanism of pollen exine development by which a long-sought master repressor of upstream activators prevents excessive exine formation.

Promoting genotype-independent plant transformation by manipulating developmental regulatory genes and/or using nanoparticles.

KEY MESSAGE: This review summarizes the molecular basis and emerging applications of developmental regulatory genes and nanoparticles in plant transformation and discusses strategies to overcome the obstacles of genotype dependency in plant transformation. Plant transformation is an important tool for plant research and biotechnology-based crop breeding. However, Plant transformation and regeneration are highly dependent on species and genotype. Plant regeneration is a process of generating a complete individual plant from a single somatic cell, which involves somatic embryogenesis, root and shoot organogeneses. Over the past 40 years, significant advances have been made in understanding molecular mechanisms of embryogenesis and organogenesis, revealing many developmental regulatory genes critical for plant regeneration. Recent studies showed that manipulating some developmental regulatory genes promotes the genotype-independent transformation of several plant species. Besides, nanoparticles penetrate plant cell wall without external forces and protect cargoes from degradation, making them promising materials for exogenous biomolecule delivery. In addition, manipulation of developmental regulatory genes or application of nanoparticles could also bypass the tissue culture process, paving the way for efficient plant transformation. Applications of developmental regulatory genes and nanoparticles are emerging in the genetic transformation of different plant species. In this article, we review the molecular basis and applications of developmental regulatory genes and nanoparticles in plant transformation and discuss how to further promote genotype-independent plant transformation.

Positive effects of online games on the growth of college students: A qualitative study from China.

Objectives: This study aimed to explore the positive effects of online games on college students' psychological demands and individual growth. Methods: A qualitative study design was carried out in September 2021. Semi-structured, in-depth, and individual interviews were conducted with a purposive sample of 20 undergraduates who played the online game "Glory of Kings" from six universities. Thematic analysis was employed to explore the positive features caused by "Glory of Kings". Results: College students reported three positive effects of online games, namely, satisfying the need for personal growth, meeting the requirement of social life and promoting academic performance. Conclusion: College educators and families should take advantage of the positive effect of online games to guide college students to use online games reasonably.

Classification of Fluorescently Labelled Maize Kernels Using Convolutional Neural Networks.

Accurate real-time classification of fluorescently labelled maize kernels is important for the industrial application of its advanced breeding techniques. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a real-time classification device and recognition algorithm for fluorescently labelled maize kernels. In this study, a machine vision (MV) system capable of identifying fluorescent maize kernels in real time was designed using a fluorescent protein excitation light source and a filter to achieve optimal detection. A high-precision method for identifying fluorescent maize kernels based on a YOLOv5s convolutional neural network (CNN) was developed. The kernel sorting effects of the improved YOLOv5s model, as well as other YOLO models, were analysed and compared. The results show that using a yellow LED light as an excitation light source combined with an industrial camera filter with a central wavelength of 645 nm achieves the best recognition effect for fluorescent maize kernels. Using the improved YOLOv5s algorithm can increase the recognition accuracy of fluorescent maize kernels to 96%. This study provides a feasible technical solution for the high-precision, real-time classification of fluorescent maize kernels and has universal technical value for the efficient identification and classification of various fluorescently labelled plant seeds.

Bibliometric Analysis of Functional Crops and Nutritional Quality: Identification of Gene Resources to Improve Crop Nutritional Quality through Gene Editing Technology.

Food security and hidden hunger are two worldwide serious and complex challenges nowadays. As one of the newly emerged technologies, gene editing technology and its application to crop improvement offers the possibility to relieve the pressure of food security and nutrient needs. In this paper, we analyzed the research status of quality improvement based on gene editing using four major crops, including rice, soybean, maize, and wheat, through a bibliometric analysis. The research hotspots now focus on the regulatory network of related traits, quite different from the technical improvements to gene editing in the early stage, while the trends in deregulation in gene-edited crops have accelerated related research. Then, we mined quality-related genes that can be edited to develop functional crops, including 16 genes related to starch, 15 to lipids, 14 to proteins, and 15 to other functional components. These findings will provide useful reference information and gene resources for the improvement of functional crops and nutritional quality based on gene editing technology.

A Systematic Investigation of Lipid Transfer Proteins Involved in Male Fertility and Other Biological Processes in Maize.

Plant lipid transfer proteins (LTPs) play essential roles in various biological processes, including anther and pollen development, vegetative organ development, seed development and germination, and stress response, but the research progress varies greatly among Arabidopsis, rice and maize. Here, we presented a preliminary introduction and characterization of the whole 65 LTP genes in maize, and performed a phylogenetic tree and gene ontology analysis of the LTP family members in maize. We compared the research progresses of the reported LTP genes involved in male fertility and other biological processes in Arabidopsis and rice, and thus provided some implications for their maize orthologs, which will provide useful clues for the investigation of LTP transporters in maize. We predicted the functions of LTP genes based on bioinformatic analyses of their spatiotemporal expression patterns by using RNA-seq and qRT-PCR assays. Finally, we discussed the advances and challenges in substrate identification of plant LTPs, and presented the future research directions of LTPs in plants. This study provides a basic framework for functional research and the potential application of LTPs in multiple plants, especially for male sterility research and application in maize.

Triphasic regulation of ZmMs13 encoding an ABCG transporter is sequentially required for callose dissolution, pollen exine and anther cuticle formation in maize.

INTRODUCTION: ATP Binding Cassette G (ABCG) transporters are associated with plant male reproduction, while their regulatory mechanisms underlying anther and pollen development remain largely unknown. OBJECTIVES: Identify and characterize a male-sterility gene ZmMs13 encoding an ABCG transporter in modulating anther and pollen development in maize. METHODS: Phenotypic, cytological observations, and histochemistry staining were performed to characterize the ms13-6060 mutant. Map-based cloning and CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing were used to identify ZmMs13 gene. RNA-seq data and qPCR analyses, phylogenetic and microsynteny analyses, transient dual-luciferase reporter and EMSA assays, subcellular localization, and ATPase activity and lipidomic analyses were carried out to determine the regulatory mechanisms of ZmMs13 gene. RESULTS: Maize ms13-6060 mutant displays complete male sterility with delayed callose degradation, premature tapetal programmed cell death (PCD), and defective pollen exine and anther cuticle formation. ZmMs13 encodes a plasm membrane (PM)- and endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-localized half-size ABCG transporter (ZmABCG2a). The allele of ZmMs13 in ms13-6060 mutant has one amino acid (I311) deletion due to a 3-bp deletion in its fourth exon. The I311 and other conserved amino acid K99 are essential for the ATPase and lipid binding activities of ZmMS13. ZmMs13 is specifically expressed in anthers with three peaks at stages S5, S8b, and S10, which are successively regulated by transcription factors ZmbHLH122, ZmMYB84, and ZmMYB33-1/-2 at these three stages. The triphasic regulation of ZmMs13 is sequentially required for callose dissolution, tapetal PCD and pollen exine development, and anther cuticle formation, corresponding to transcription alterations of callose-, ROS-, PCD-, sporopollenin-, and anther cuticle-related genes in ms13-6060 anthers. CONCLUSION: ms13-6060 mutation with one key amino acid (I311) deletion greatly reduces ZmMS13 ATPase and lipid binding activities and displays multiple effects during maize male reproduction. Our findings provide new insights into molecular mechanisms of ABCG transporters controlling anther and pollen development and male fertility in plants.

Genetic Analysis and Fine Mapping of ZmGHT1 Conferring Glufosinate Herbicide Tolerance in Maize (Zea mays L.).

Weed interference in the crop field is one of the major biotic stresses causing dramatic crop yield losses, and the development of herbicide-resistant crops is critical for weed control in the application of herbicide technologies. To identify herbicide-resistant germplasms, we screened 854 maize inbreed lines and 25,620 seedlings by spraying them with 1 g/L glufosinate. One plant (L336R), possibly derived from a natural variation of line L336, was identified to have the potential for glufosinate tolerance. Genetic analysis validated that the glufosinate tolerance of L336R is conferred by a single locus, which was tentatively designated as ZmGHT1. By constructing a bi-parental population derived from L336R, and a glufosinate sensitive line L312, ZmGHT1 was mapped between molecular markers M9 and M10. Interestingly, genomic comparation between the two sequenced reference genomes showed that large scale structural variations (SVs) occurred within the mapped region, resulting in 2.16 Mb in the inbreed line B73, and 11.5 kb in CML277, respectively. During the fine mapping process, we did not detect any additional recombinant, even by using more than 9500 F2 and F3 plants, suspecting that SVs should also have occurred between L336R and L312 in this region, which inhibited recombination. By evaluating the expression of the genes within the mapped interval and using functional annotation, we predict that the gene Zm00001eb361930, encoding an aminotransferase, is the most likely causative gene. After glufosinate treatment, lower levels of ammonia content and a higher activity of glutamine synthetase (GS) in L336R were detected compared with those of L336 and L312, suggesting that the target gene may participate in ammonia elimination involving GS activity. Collectively, our study can provide a material resource for maize herbicide resistant breeding, with the potential to reveal a new mechanism for herbicide resistance.

The ZmMYB84-ZmPKSB regulatory module controls male fertility through modulating anther cuticle-pollen exine trade-off in maize anthers.

Anther cuticle and pollen exine are two crucial lipid layers that ensure normal pollen development and pollen-stigma interaction for successful fertilization and seed production in plants. Their formation processes share certain common pathways of lipid biosynthesis and transport across four anther wall layers. However, molecular mechanism underlying a trade-off of lipid-metabolic products to promote the proper formation of the two lipid layers remains elusive. Here, we identified and characterized a maize male-sterility mutant pksb, which displayed denser anther cuticle but thinner pollen exine as well as delayed tapetal degeneration compared with its wild type. Based on map-based cloning and CRISPR/Cas9 mutagenesis, we found that the causal gene (ZmPKSB) of pksb mutant encoded an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-localized polyketide synthase (PKS) with catalytic activities to malonyl-CoA and midchain-fatty acyl-CoA to generate triketide and tetraketide α-pyrone. A conserved catalytic triad (C171, H320 and N353) was essential for its enzymatic activity. ZmPKSB was specifically expressed in maize anthers from stages S8b to S9-10 with its peak at S9 and was directly activated by a transcription factor ZmMYB84. Moreover, loss function of ZmMYB84 resulted in denser anther cuticle but thinner pollen exine similar to the pksb mutant. The ZmMYB84-ZmPKSB regulatory module controlled a trade-off between anther cuticle and pollen exine formation by altering expression of a series of genes related to biosynthesis and transport of sporopollenin, cutin and wax. These findings provide new insights into the fine-tuning regulation of lipid-metabolic balance to precisely promote anther cuticle and pollen exine formation in plants.

The Bibliometric Landscape of Gene Editing Innovation and Regulation in the Worldwide.

Gene editing (GE) has become one of the mainstream bioengineering technologies over the past two decades, mainly fueled by the rapid development of the CRISPR/Cas system since 2012. To date, plenty of articles related to the progress and applications of GE have been published globally, but the objective, quantitative and comprehensive investigations of them are relatively few. Here, 13,980 research articles and reviews published since 1999 were collected by using GE-related queries in the Web of Science. We used bibliometric analysis to investigate the competitiveness and cooperation of leading countries, influential affiliations, and prolific authors. Text clustering methods were used to assess technical trends and research hotspots dynamically. The global application status and regulatory framework were also summarized. This analysis illustrates the bottleneck of the GE innovation and provides insights into the future trajectory of development and application of the technology in various fields, which will be helpful for the popularization of gene editing technology.

The Loss-Function of the Male Sterile Gene ZmMs33/ZmGPAT6 Results in Severely Oxidative Stress and Metabolic Disorder in Maize Anthers.

In plants, oxidative stress and metabolic reprogramming frequently induce male sterility, however our knowledge of the underlying molecular mechanism is far from complete. Here, a maize genic male-sterility (GMS) mutant (ms33-6038) with a loss-of-function of the ZmMs33 gene encoding glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase 6 (GPAT6) displayed severe deficiencies in the development of a four-layer anther wall and microspores and excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) content in anthers. In ms33-6038 anthers, transcriptome analysis identified thousands of differentially expressed genes that were functionally enriched in stress response and primary metabolism pathways. Further investigation revealed that 64 genes involved in ROS production, scavenging, and signaling were specifically changed in expression levels in ms33-6038 anthers compared to the other five investigated GMS lines. The severe oxidative stress triggered premature tapetal autophagy and metabolic reprogramming mediated mainly by the activated SnRK1-bZIP pathway, as well as the TOR and PP2AC pathways, proven by transcriptome analysis. Furthermore, 20 reported maize GMS genes were altered in expression levels in ms33-6038 anthers. The excessive oxidative stress and the metabolic reprogramming resulted in severe phenotypic deficiencies in ms33-6038 anthers. These findings enrich our understanding of the molecular mechanisms by which ROS and metabolic homeostasis impair anther and pollen development in plants.

ATP-Binding Cassette G Transporters and Their Multiple Roles Especially for Male Fertility in Arabidopsis, Rice and Maize.

ATP-binding cassette subfamily G (ABCG) transporters are extensive in plants and play essential roles in various processes influencing plant fitness, but the research progress varies greatly among Arabidopsis, rice and maize. In this review, we present a consolidated nomenclature and characterization of the whole 51 ABCG transporters in maize, perform a phylogenetic analysis and classification of the ABCG subfamily members in maize, and summarize the latest research advances in ABCG transporters for these three plant species. ABCG transporters are involved in diverse processes in Arabidopsis and rice, such as anther and pollen development, vegetative and female organ development, abiotic and biotic stress response, and phytohormone transport, which provide useful clues for the functional investigation of ABCG transporters in maize. Finally, we discuss the current challenges and future perspectives for the identification and mechanism analysis of substrates for plant ABCG transporters. This review provides a basic framework for functional research and the potential application of ABCG transporters in multiple plants, including maize.

Genetic Structure and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying the Formation of Tassel, Anther, and Pollen in the Male Inflorescence of Maize (Zea mays L.).

Maize tassel is the male reproductive organ which is located at the plant's apex; both its morphological structure and fertility have a profound impact on maize grain yield. More than 40 functional genes regulating the complex tassel traits have been cloned up to now. However, the detailed molecular mechanisms underlying the whole process, from male inflorescence meristem initiation to tassel morphogenesis, are seldom discussed. Here, we summarize the male inflorescence developmental genes and construct a molecular regulatory network to further reveal the molecular mechanisms underlying tassel-trait formation in maize. Meanwhile, as one of the most frequently studied quantitative traits, hundreds of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) and thousands of quantitative trait nucleotides (QTNs) related to tassel morphology have been identified so far. To reveal the genetic structure of tassel traits, we constructed a consensus physical map for tassel traits by summarizing the genetic studies conducted over the past 20 years, and identified 97 hotspot intervals (HSIs) that can be repeatedly mapped in different labs, which will be helpful for marker-assisted selection (MAS) in improving maize yield as well as for providing theoretical guidance in the subsequent identification of the functional genes modulating tassel morphology. In addition, maize is one of the most successful crops in utilizing heterosis; mining of the genic male sterility (GMS) genes is crucial in developing biotechnology-based male-sterility (BMS) systems for seed production and hybrid breeding. In maize, more than 30 GMS genes have been isolated and characterized, and at least 15 GMS genes have been promptly validated by CRISPR/Cas9 mutagenesis within the past two years. We thus summarize the maize GMS genes and further update the molecular regulatory networks underlying male fertility in maize. Taken together, the identified HSIs, genes and molecular mechanisms underlying tassel morphological structure and male fertility are useful for guiding the subsequent cloning of functional genes and for molecular design breeding in maize. Finally, the strategies concerning efficient and rapid isolation of genes controlling tassel morphological structure and male fertility and their application in maize molecular breeding are also discussed.

Plant Molecular Farming, a Tool for Functional Food Production.

The demand of functional food is increasing for improving human health. Plant molecular farming (PMF) employs plants as bioreactors for the production of pharmaceuticals. Now PMF has been used to produce antibodies, vaccines, and medicinal proteins, but it has not been well-studied for production of nutraceuticals and functional food. In this perspective, we extend the concept of PMF, present an updated overview of PMF for functional food development, including the progress, problem, and strategy, and then speculate how to use the PMF strategy to produce functional foods, especially with four major staple food crops (rice, wheat, maize, and soybean). Finally, we discuss the opportunities and challenges of PMF on functional food production in the future.

Use of CRISPR/Cas9-Based Gene Editing to Simultaneously Mutate Multiple Homologous Genes Required for Pollen Development and Male Fertility in Maize.

Male sterility represents an important trait for hybrid breeding and seed production in crops. Although the genes required for male fertility have been widely studied and characterized in many plant species, most of them are single genic male-sterility (GMS) genes. To investigate the role of multiple homologous genes in anther and pollen developments of maize, we established the CRISPR/Cas9-based gene editing method to simultaneously mutate the homologs in several putative GMS gene families. By using the integrated strategies of multi-gene editing vectors, maize genetic transformation, mutation-site analysis of T0 and F1 plants, and genotyping and phenotyping of F2 progenies, we further confirmed gene functions of every member in ZmTGA9-1/-2/-3 family, and identified the functions of ZmDFR1, ZmDFR2, ZmACOS5-1, and ZmACOS5-2 in controlling maize male fertility. Single and double homozygous gene mutants of ZmTGA9-1/-2/-3 did not affect anther and pollen development, while triple homozygous gene mutant resulted in complete male sterility. Two single-gene mutants of ZmDFR1/2 displayed partial male sterility, but the double-gene mutant showed complete male sterility. Additionally, only the ZmACOS5-2 single gene was required for anther and pollen development, while ZmACOS5-1 had no effect on male fertility. Our results show that the CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing system is a highly efficient and convenient tool for identifying multiple homologous GMS genes. These findings enrich GMS genes and mutant resources for breeding of maize GMS lines and promote deep understanding of the gene family underlying pollen development and male fertility in maize.

ZmMs25 encoding a plastid-localized fatty acyl reductase is critical for anther and pollen development in maize.

Fatty acyl reductases (FARs) catalyse the reduction of fatty acyl-coenzyme A (CoA) or -acyl carrier protein (ACP) substrates to primary fatty alcohols, which play essential roles in lipid metabolism in plants. However, the mechanism by which FARs are involved in male reproduction is poorly defined. Here, we found that two maize allelic mutants, ms25-6065 and ms25-6057, displayed defective anther cuticles, abnormal Ubisch body formation, impaired pollen exine formation and complete male sterility. Based on map-based cloning and CRISPR/Cas9 mutagenesis, Zm00001d048337 was identified as ZmMs25, encoding a plastid-localized FAR with catalytic activities to multiple acyl-CoA substrates in vitro. Four conserved residues (G101, G104, Y327 and K331) of ZmMs25 were critical for its activity. ZmMs25 was predominantly expressed in anther, and was directly regulated by transcription factor ZmMYB84. Lipidomics analysis revealed that ms25 mutation had significant effects on reducing cutin monomers and internal lipids, and altering the composition of cuticular wax in anthers. Moreover, loss of function of ZmMs25 significantly affected the expression of its four paralogous genes and five cloned lipid metabolic male-sterility genes in maize. These data suggest that ZmMs25 is required for anther development and male fertility, indicating its application potential in maize and other crops.

CRISPR/Cas9-based discovery of maize transcription factors regulating male sterility and their functional conservation in plants.

Identifying genic male-sterility (GMS) genes and elucidating their roles are important to unveil plant male reproduction and promote their application in crop breeding. However, compared with Arabidopsis and rice, relatively fewer maize GMS genes have been discovered and little is known about their regulatory pathways underlying anther and pollen development. Here, by sequencing and analysing anther transcriptomes at 11 developmental stages in maize B73, Zheng58 and M6007 inbred lines, 1100 transcription factor (TF) genes were identified to be stably differentially expressed among different developmental stages. Among them, 14 maize TF genes (9 types belonging to five TF families) were selected and performed CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene mutagenesis, and then, 12 genes in eight types, including ZmbHLH51, ZmbHLH122, ZmTGA9-1/-2/-3, ZmTGA10, ZmMYB84, ZmMYB33-1/-2, ZmPHD11 and ZmLBD10/27, were identified as maize new GMS genes by using DNA sequencing, phenotypic and cytological analyses. Notably, ZmTGA9-1/-2/-3 triple-gene mutants and ZmMYB33-1/-2 double-gene mutants displayed complete male sterility, but their double- or single-gene mutants showed male fertility. Similarly, ZmLBD10/27 double-gene mutant displayed partial male sterility with 32.18% of aborted pollen grains. In addition, ZmbHLH51 was transcriptionally activated by ZmbHLH122 and their proteins were physically interacted. Molecular markers co-segregating with these GMS mutations were developed to facilitate their application in maize breeding. Finally, all 14-type maize GMS TF genes identified here and reported previously were compared on functional conservation and diversification among maize, rice and Arabidopsis. These findings enrich GMS gene and mutant resources for deeply understanding the regulatory network underlying male fertility and for creating male-sterility lines in maize.

Breeding with dominant genic male-sterility genes to boost crop grain yield in the post-heterosis utilization era.

Global food security is facing severe challenges from an ever-growing population, limited resources, and various stresses. Dominant genic male sterility (DGMS) technology combined with modern breeding strategies may create novel cultivation models with ~50% DGMS F1 hybrids for field production of cross-pollinated crops, boosting crop grain yield to ensure global food security and sustainable agriculture in the post-heterosis utilization era.

Normal Structure and Function of Endothecium Chloroplasts Maintained by ZmMs33-Mediated Lipid Biosynthesis in Tapetal Cells Are Critical for Anther Development in Maize.

Genic male sterility (GMS) is critical for heterosis utilization and hybrid seed production. Although GMS mutants and genes have been studied extensively in plants, it has remained unclear whether chloroplast-associated photosynthetic and metabolic activities are involved in the regulation of anther development. In this study, we characterized the function of ZmMs33/ZmGPAT6, which encodes a member of the glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GPAT) family that catalyzes the first step of the glycerolipid synthetic pathway. We found that normal structure and function of endothecium (En) chloroplasts maintained by ZmMs33-mediated lipid biosynthesis in tapetal cells are crucial for maize anther development. ZmMs33 is expressed mainly in the tapetum at early anther developmental stages and critical for cell proliferation and expansion at late stages. Chloroplasts in En cells of wild-type anthers function as starch storage sites before stage 10 but as photosynthetic factories since stage 10 to enable starch metabolism and carbohydrate supply. Loss of ZmMs33 function inhibits the biosynthesis of glycolipids and phospholipids, which are major components of En chloroplast membranes, and disrupts the development and function of En chloroplasts, resulting in the formation of abnormal En chloroplasts containing numerous starch granules. Further analyses reveal that starch synthesis during the day and starch degradation at night are greatly suppressed in the mutant anthers, leading to carbon starvation and low energy status, as evidenced by low trehalose-6-phosphate content and a reduced ATP/AMP ratio. The energy sensor and inducer of autophagy, SnRK1, was activated to induce early and excessive autophagy, premature PCD, and metabolic reprogramming in tapetal cells, finally arresting the elongation and development of mutant anthers. Taken together, our results not only show that ZmMs33 is required for normal structure and function of En chloroplasts but also reveal that starch metabolism and photosynthetic activities of En chloroplasts at different developmental stages are essential for normal anther development. These findings provide novel insights for understanding how lipid biosynthesis in the tapetum, the structure and function of En chloroplasts, and energy and substance metabolism are coordinated to maintain maize anther development.